For example, words like "knight" or "psychology" do not follow regular phonetic rules, but a person with strong orthographic processing skills will be able to read and recognize them because they have stored the visual representation of these words in their memory.
Importance of Orthographic Processing in Fluent Reading
Orthographic processing plays a key role in reading fluency, which is the ability to read text quickly, accurately, and with proper expression. Fluent readers rely on their mental store of word patterns and visual word forms to avoid the slow, laborious process of sounding out every word. This visual memory system helps readers to:
Identify words effortlessly: Once words are recognized visually, they no longer require phonetic decoding.
Recognize letter patterns: This skill helps readers understand that letters form patterns, like “-tion” in words such as “station” and “nation.”
Spell more accurately: Spelling, particularly of irregular words, requires strong orthographic memory. Students need to remember not just the sounds of the words but also the correct letter patterns.
A weakness in orthographic processing can lead to difficulties in spelling, reading fluency, and the ability to store visual word forms in memory. These difficulties are characteristic of conditions like surface dyslexia, where individuals struggle to read irregular words fluently and are overly reliant on phonetic decoding strategies.
Phonological Processing: The Sound-Based System
Phonological processing, on the other hand, refers to the brain's ability to recognize and manipulate the sounds (or phonemes) in spoken language. This system is essential for decoding words in alphabetic languages like English, where letters represent sounds. Phonological processing includes several key abilities:
Phonemic awareness: The ability to recognize and manipulate individual sounds in words, such as recognizing that “cat” consists of the sound's /k/, /æ/, and /t/.
Phonological memory: The capacity to hold and remember sound information over short periods. For example, this ability helps you remember how a word sounds long enough to decode it.
Phonological retrieval: The ability to recall phonemes when needed, such as when sounding out a word or pronouncing a word correctly.
Phonological Processing and Dyslexia
Research consistently points to phonological processing deficits as the hallmark of developmental dyslexia. These deficits make it difficult for individuals to break words into their constituent sounds, leading to challenges in decoding unfamiliar words. Phonological processing is critical for early reading development because it underlies the ability to sound out new words. Without strong phonological skills, readers will struggle to map sounds onto letters, resulting in poor decoding and reading difficulties.
Children with dyslexia, for example, may have difficulty breaking down words into their individual phonemes, making it hard for them to learn to read, particularly in languages like English, where many words follow complex phonetic patterns.
Differences Between Orthographic and Phonological Processing
While orthographic and phonological processing both play roles in reading, they involve distinct cognitive pathways:
Orthographic processing is primarily visual. It deals with recognizing words and their patterns without needing to analyze the sounds of the letters. This system allows for automatic word recognition, which is crucial for reading fluency.
Phonological processing, in contrast, is auditory and involves the ability to manipulate and remember sounds. It is most important in the early stages of reading when children are learning to decode words by sounding them out.
For fluent reading, both systems need to work together. When a reader encounters an unfamiliar word, they first use phonological processing to sound it out, then they rely on orthographic processing to store that word’s visual representation for future encounters. Over time, words that are regularly seen become stored in long-term memory and can be read automatically.
How Deficits Manifest in Reading Disorders
Phonological Processing Deficits:
Individuals with phonological deficits often struggle with decoding new words. They might have strong orthographic memory for familiar words but face challenges with phonetic decoding.
They may mispronounce or misread unfamiliar words and have difficulty with spelling, particularly phonetic spelling.
Such individuals might avoid reading or read slowly because of the difficulty in decoding unfamiliar text.
Orthographic Processing Deficits:
People with orthographic processing difficulties may be able to sound out words but have trouble with reading fluency and recognizing irregular words. They tend to over-rely on phonological strategies, even for familiar words, which slows down their reading.
Spelling becomes a significant issue, particularly for words that do not follow regular phonetic rules.
The Importance of Both Processes in Education
In structured literacy programs, educators emphasize both orthographic and phonological skills. Explicit instruction in phonemic awareness (the ability to hear and manipulate sounds) is necessary for developing reading skills. Meanwhile, teaching spelling patterns and visual recognition of word forms is critical for building orthographic processing. A comprehensive approach that addresses both areas ensures that students develop the ability to decode and recognize words, laying the foundation for fluent reading and strong spelling skills.
Conclusion
Both orthographic and phonological processing are essential for reading and spelling, but they serve different functions. Phonological processing is vital for breaking down and decoding words, especially in the early stages of reading. In contrast, orthographic processing allows for quick recognition of familiar words, aiding in reading fluency. Deficits in either area can lead to specific types of reading difficulties, such as dyslexia or surface dyslexia. Addressing these deficits requires targeted interventions that build both sound-based decoding skills and visual word recognition abilities, ensuring that learners can become proficient, fluent readers.
